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Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the information or idea under study. [122] Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. [81.3] Magnesia, the only city in Asia that remained loyal, was defended against Mithridates with the greatest courage. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. [94] While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families, confiscating any available properties. A primary source is a first-hand or contemporary account of an event or topic. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Publius Cornelius Rufinus, one of Sulla's ancestors and also the last member of his family to be consul, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. At the start of his second consulship in 80BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. [citation needed], Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. [116] Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus who had dangerously divided their forces. [38] The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius,[39] and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. History has portrayed them as being emblematic for a generation of chaos in Roman society. At the same time, Marius had annihilated the Cimbri's allies, the Teutones, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. For other uses, see, Portrait of Sulla on a denarius minted in 54 BC by his grandson, They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally. [18] Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Romes comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. He's remembered best for bringing his soldiers into Rome, the killing of Roman citizens, and his military skill in several areas. Wikipedia entry + Cornelius , Epaphroditus , Sylla 138/31 The birth of L.Sulla. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. However, his candidature was dealt a blow when he was brought up on charges of extorting Ariobarzanes. Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. The collection currently contains . [34] The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. Years later, in 91BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. porterville unified school district human resources; Tags . He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). 107/14 The dissolute lifestyle of L.Sulla, as a young man. [100], In the summer of 86BC, two major battles were fought in Boeotia. [111], The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests for Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. Pueblo, CO 81001. Introduction. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. On each line there is a link to the page where the name can be found. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Partian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. Faced with mobilizing a sufficient fighting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized a town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. [40], In 102BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Church and W. J. Brodribb. He was, however, defeated. Books. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. He became a tribune of the plebeians in 52 BC where he gained a reputation for being a strong supporter of the populares. Life dates 138 BC-78 BC. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. This brief guide is designed to help students and researchers find and evaluate primary sources available online. [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. Revised on November 11, 2022. Newspapers. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. A research article or study proving this would be a primary source. Thus, Sulla was presented with a choice. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. Catulus, with Sulla, moved to block their advance; the two men likely cooperated well. The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across the plain. In the ensuing fight, Sulla defeated Marius, who consequently fled to Praeneste. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. [76] Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Finding Primary Sources Primary Sources from DocsTeach Thousands of online primary source documents from the National Archives to bring the past to life as classroom teaching tools. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. Historical documents : how to read them. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. [119][120] The remainder of 83BC was dedicated to recruiting for the next year's campaign amid poor weather: Quintus Sertorius had raised a considerable force in Etruria, but was alienated from the consuls by the election of Gaius Marius' son rather than himself and so left to his praetorian province of Hispania Citerior; Sulla repudiated recognition of any treaties with the Samnites, whom he did not consider to be Roman citizens due to his rejection of Marius and Cinna's deal in 87BC. Plutarch, writing much . Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young. They are often based on primary sources. [19] Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria, he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day.[20]. He can hardly have been in any doubt. Tools for primary source analysis. Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. was a major figure in the late Roman Republic. Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Eyeglasses from Colonial America would be a primary source about Early American History. [145], His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. 213/23 P.Cornelius Sulla is chosen to be Flamen Dialis. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. A book from 1877 England would be a primary source about Victorian history. [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? The Acropolis was then besieged. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. He was also notorious for his personal relationships . Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. Essentially, they're sources about primary sources. [104] When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks, the Romans almost broke; Sulla personally rallied his men on foot and stabilised the area. onwards. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. [13][14][15] Sulla's family thereafter did not reach the highest offices of the state until Sulla himself. They are original research, thinking, or discovery on a topic or event, and are written or created by people who actually experienced the event . [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. Primary sources are the evidence of history, original records or objects created by participants or observers at the time historical . Also useful for understanding Sulla's career are the article by E. Baddian . [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material or first-hand information. [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. Sulla then duly besieged the city. [58] At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. Demanding transfer to Catulus' (Marius' consular colleague) army, he received it. [32] After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. Sulla (P. Cornelius Sulla) - Roman praetor, 212 B.C. 1963), and Stewart Perowne, Death of the Roman Republic: From 146 B.C. Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses. The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Sulla is a central character in the first three, Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the, His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. The two primary sources for this paper are Sallust's National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. [107], Mithridates, still in Asia, was faced with local uprisings against his rule. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla - Primary Source Edition Paperback - September 30, 2013 by Augustus Henry Beesly (Author) 3.4 out of 5 stars 4 ratings With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. . The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. Tweet. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . Sulla had total control of the city and Republic of Rome, except for Hispania (which Marius' general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). [155] Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance. Although he was able to regain the command, his political setup in Rome collapsed almost as soon as he left Italy, and the war would . vinifera, hereafter V. vinifera) shares a close relationship with humans ().With unmatched cultivar diversity, this food source (table and raisin grapes) and winemaking ingredient (wine grapes) became an emblem of cultural identity in major Eurasian civilizations (1-3), leading to intensive research in ampelography, archaeobotany, and historical . He had close connections to the imperial family and was the husband of Antonia, Claudius's daughter, and might thus have been seen as a threat to Nero. [21] Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. Gnaeus Carbo attempted to lift the Siege of Praeneste but failed and fled to Africa. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . Sulla and the proscriptions Lucius Cornelius Sulla was consul in 88 BC (and again in 80 BC) and dictator from 82 to 79 BC. [96] Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. The Steamboat Adventure. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. You may copy and distribute the translations and commentaries in this resource, or parts of such translations and commentaries, in any medium . However, in some cases, paintings are considered secondary sources. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. Secondary Sources: Primary sources are not complete; you will find the following helpful: Boardman, John, ed. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. J. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. sulla primary sources. Wikipedia entry. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are made . The Roman military and political leader Sulla "Felix" (138-78 B.C.E.) [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". His primary duty was the defeat of Mithridates and the re-establishment of Roman power in the east. Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments. [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. Guide. [67], Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89BC, was not uncontested. [57], The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. [113] The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. [97], Early in 87BC, Sulla transited the Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). Deciding whether a source is primary or secondary is sometimes confusing. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. Sulla's career is recounted in detail in Howard Hayes Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. Biography Roman military commander and dictator of the Roman republic (81-80 BC). In this first video of a 2-part tutorial, we will discuss primary sources. [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. A list of useful online sources for reading about Rome at the time of Sulla Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius - Includes maps of the Roman world, texts of several primary sources, and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. The historian Sallust fleshes out this character sketch of Sulla: He was well versed both in Greek and Roman literature, and had a truly remarkable mind. [72] Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs so it continued to resist him". He then sailed for Italy at the head of 1,200 ships. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . Marius and Sulla are very curious figures in the late Roman Republic. This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Social: Facebook Page YouTube Page Instagram Page. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". [30] Sulla was popular with the men, charming and benign, he built up a healthy rapport while also winning popularity with other officers, including Marius. [74], During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). Categories . The law was vetoed by one of the tribunes, but when Quintus Pompeius Rufus went to Pompey Strabo's army to take command under the Senate's authority, he was promptly assassinated after his arrival and assumption of command, almost certainly on Strabo's orders. Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship.
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